Organization or institution Essay

A form _or_ system of goernment great deal be defined as a guide to the legal actions or decisions of heap in organization or institution. A insurance states how members of an organization should act in special(prenominal) situations which f ar frequently and affect elephantine eyeshades of people in a group. A insurance insurance insurance has three components namely it moldinessiness commence a process to achieve trusted goals, it must grant specific goals to experience and it must have a corpse take shape in violate of appearance which it functions. According to Dimock a scholar, policies argon important in guiding the conduct of people who pass decisions and take actions in organizations.However, the term policy is lots conf substance ab handlingd with early(a) related call much(prenominal)(prenominal) as a rule, a programme, a decision and a procedure alone in reality at that get in is a marked difference between a policy and these early(a) terms. According to the scholar known as James Anderson in his entertain titled in the world eye(predicate) policy analysis, world policy is round why political science do things they choose to do and the difference that it makes. g everywherenance does m whatever(prenominal) things such as conflict resolution in nine, organizing society to carry give away conflicts with other societies.Governments in addition distri thate a capacious variety of goods and services to the members of the society mainly in the form of taxes. Thus, exoteric policies whitethorn regulate behavior, organize bureaucracies, distribute goods, collect r eveningue any other desirable activity. For this reason public policy is designed to take over personal discomfort or societal unease. This is due to the fact that people expect political relation to do umpteen things for them and indeed in that respect atomic number 18 no personal or societal problems for which some(prenominal) group leave behind not demand a political relation solution. semipublic policy studies therefrom deals with the translation and explanations of ca intents and consequences of regime activity. It therefore connotes a positive side of an action in the sense that it empha sizes an initiative by giving medication to solve problems face by people. The authorities has many blood lines of gross which include Taxes-The presidency toilette get its tax tax from discordant sources of taxes in a awkward. Tax is a compulsory contribution by the government on its citizens to enable it to fulfill its sp eradicateings for a common cause.Tax enables the government to countenance companionable and virtue goods and services. These argon the so called public goods and are consumed by all citizens irrespective of whether they stipend tax or not e. g. planning of roads, bridges, social facilities etceteratera Also taxation is used as a controlling the endure of cash and capital in a country to ensur e sparing stability. It is used as a tool of economic policy e. g. bother of melloweder(prenominal) import duty in crop to protect topical anaesthetic industries granting of capital allowances and other tax incentives to encourage the inflow of direct remote investment.Internal borrowing is another method whereby the public policy digest get its funding. This is done done the sale of treasury peters and bonds. It might be restricted to a given percentage of gross domestic products. Although used, it has some effects kindred it pushes up the interest rates in the economy thus increasing the comprise of capital and it whitethorn practise inflationary pressure on the economy once the government repays the money. Aids and grants. This whitethorn be given by international monetary fund and human race Bank and other bilateral donors.But it has constraints equal strict terms and conditions which are imposed by donors which may be humiliating to the nation, it may not be sufficient to solve the figure deficit problems of the government. outer borrowing usually from other countries or organizations such as IMF and instauration Bank. It has effects like humiliating terms and conditions and overly the country go away increase its already heavily burden of external debt. A cypher AS APUBLIC POLICY A work out is generally a nominate of all planned expenses and receiptss. It is a plan for saving and spending.A calculate is an important concept in microeconomics, which uses a cypher line to gild the trade-offs between two or more goods. The calculate should contain a narrative explaining how you decided on the measuring of this re table service and a description of the expected monetary terminations of business activities. The assets should be respectd with separately and every(prenominal) cost. All other expenses are like labor factory viewgraph all freshmen expenses are besides included into business cyphering. A budget is come ac rossed as a marriage proposal to be prepared by the judicatory and submitted to the legislature.Its aim could be to bring in in summary form the facts undeniable to shape the policy of the government as intumesce as provide pecuniary support. The summaries of fact included in the budget could also serve as a key to the details of transactions and of estimates which could be submitted with the budget. The musical composition inhibition that no money shall be drawn from the treasury but in consequence of annexations made by the law makes the budget an instrumental role of legislative control over the administration. To implement policies, government requires money as wellhead as institutional structure.The budgetary process provides a agency of allocating the available resources among competing interests to which they could be applied. When they device a budget, decision makers function within a definite resource constraint and must base their decisions on the assumption tha t no more receipts go away hap in. and then they allot the available amount of money for the greatest social, economic and governmental usefulness. separately year there must be a unseasoned budget and an annual spread has evolved for the appropriation and consumption of available public moneys.The repetitive nature of the budget cycle is important, for those involved might set differently if they did not know that they have to come back each year after year to get more money. For instance, the government of fall in States budget system provides the means for the president and relative to decide on how much money to use, what to use it on, and ways of raising the money they have decided to use. It is through the budget system, whereby they determine how the allocation of resources between the agencies of the federal government.In most episodes there are consequences in the decisions made during budget process due to the fact that they affect the state as a whole, nati on and local governments, and individuals in the country. Budget decisions in most cases have significance in most of the countries in the whole universe. After the congress and the president have enacted budget decisions into law, the budget system on the other hand ensures that these laws are carried out. The process of planning incoming business actions and bringing those plans in a formal manner is what is referred as budgeting.A budget is a formal argument of future plans since the economic or financial aspects of the government are primary matters of consideration. Every fall apart of the government is necessarily high complex and technical . A budget therefore supply the compulsion for an effective means whereby those who are responsible for direction and control over technical process and who understands the technical withdraws of the service may formally present to the legislature and through the legislature to the people a well defined plan of work to be financed in order that the government may make a provisional for needs of the country.The ways in which budgets are made reflect the choices, policies and philosophies of governments. everyday finance deals budgeting as well as taxes and tax. The budget is made up of revenue and expenditure proposal which have great chances of impacting as a public policy tool. tax income deals with policy have a go at its including regulating the activities of firms in certain sectors, affecting ware in that it can be used to encourage or discourage takings, stabilisation of the economy through control of inflation and even the distribution of wealthiness e.g. exempting low income earners from paying tax. The budget allocations are made to government de departmentments and ministries like agriculture, didactics, public health, trade, foreign affairs, defense, transport, etc and are formally made by applicable ministries. The exact character of engrossed revenues varies from case to case. Bureaucratic politics is of course concerned not only with the direct allocation of budget items but also with a struggle to engross revenues and create monopolies or cartels. sound open government involvement in agriculture includes state corporations like on sugar. Government agencies may be assigned monopo nominateic rights for the evolution of mineral resources, to produce and sell sugar or to sell seeds and fertilizers. Similarly, a public health may be established e. g. a dispensary to tornado Medi dread facilities at a subsidized rate and in return the government generates revenue. The result is that public try actually pays its own way and even produces a profit which goes into the state budget.The national budget as a policy tool also focuses on schooling. Public education may be defined as schooling mandated for or offered to all children by the government whether national, regional or local provided by an institution of civil government and paid for in whole or in part by taxes . Public education is applied to basic education, primary and alternative schools. Moreover, post secondary education like middle-level colleges and advanced education e. g. universities-all these constitute public education since the government subsidizes or pays in encompassing to sponsor students.Ideally, the budget is designed to represent most of the foreseen programs and objects. In spite of the significance of the budget in education, agriculture, revenue generation, spending etc, it is equally requisite to state that the government experiences assorted risks including property loss, loss of income or change magnitude costs, damage to real and personal property, liability etc. Different strategies are used to act risks including risk elimination, risk reduction, risk assumption, risk conveyance of title and risk insurance.However, problems in budgetary process seem to be widespread. The list may not be exhaustive but these include difficult expenditure the most impo rtant uncontrollable expenditures are the large entitlement programs of social welfare spending such as social security, Medicare and unemployment benefits, back penetration spending expenditure decisions that are not actually made through the formal appropriation process, reprogramming and transfers i. e. the shifting of funds within a specific appropriation account.Reprogramming involves shifting obligation authority from one program share to another and supplemental appropriations i. e. made outside the normal budget circle to cover shortfalls during the fiscal year. Supplemental appropriations occur during recession, the demand for unemployment assistance naturally increases and supplemental funding will be required. The budget is made up of revenue and expenditure proposal and hence such proposals have a greater chance on impacting on public policy.A budget as a policy tool acts as a source of motivation because budgets provides the standards against which actual performance is evaluated and the manner in which it is used can significantly affect the attitude of those who are to be evaluated. If the government is not elaborate a budgeting process may have negative impacts on the attitudes of the civil servants. A budget is considered as a proposal to be prepared by the administration and submitted to the legislature. A national budget thereof prepared and presented would serve the purpose of a prospectus.The act of appropriation as the legal means of making funds available to the executive pegleg enables the executive or some officer directly responsible to the executive, to exercise administrative control over liabilities incurred and over expenditures made by the many officers and agents employed by the government in the conduct of its business. Every branch of the business of the government is necessarily highly complex and technical. An act of appropriation of public money should therefore be the result of the most careful consideration of both branches of the government.For the purpose of consideration on the relation of revenue and borrowing to welfare, a budget is necessary. The budget as a policy tool is used as a can for evaluating performance among various government ministries. The control functions of the government require that departments /ministries draft an evaluation insure on their performance. A budget greatly determines their performance as it allocates various amount of funds to each. Although past performance among various ministries is potentially best for determining whether the actual results are acceptable or in need of collective actions.Budgeting promotes take on, research and focus of the future when the government plans with sufficient care and details to prepare a budget, the planning process involves thorough study and research. Not only should this results in the best conceivable plans but it should also instill in executive the habit of doing a reasonable amount of research before decision s are made. Allocation of taxpayers money by the budget is massive hence before deciding on what project the government should undertake some funds are set forth by the budget to carry out thorough research to come up with realistic and attainable goals.The budget can mostly be viewed from the economic consideration. The budget serves as a fiscal policy in terms of expenditure and revenue to stabilize the economy. Governments spend money on a wide variety of things from the military and services like education and healthcare as well as transfer payments such as welfare benefits. These expenditures can be funded through taxation, borrowing money from the population, benefit from printing money, sale of fixed assets, consumption of fiscal reserves etc. Governments borrow money and may sometimes incur debts.Several slew may force governments into a debtor position including, the need to cover deficits resulting from annual expenditures, the need to finance a long-term project and a s hort-term cash management to provide disbursement of payments in a timely fashion. No document can rightly be called a budget that does not set up a complete plan of the proposed expenditures for a definite stream and balance those expenditures with the estimated means of financing this deliver a complete picture of the governments finances.The budget should be setup and summarized as to make this picture quite clear to the citizens and taxpayers. A budget should be espouse before the beginning of the fiscal period to which it relates so that necessary accounts can be setup. Effective control over the execution of the budget plan the proper executive authority and surveillance should be provided to put the plan into operation. Physical control should be established through accounts and otherwise ensure that the expenditure of the government are being made to the budget plan.Staff assistance must be considered depending upon the size of the government that can give circumspecti on exclusively to the collection of the budget culture. There is need for government to have broad and accurate information which must be reliable and indicate clearly the scope of the work and the various activities of the government. For the purpose of considering the relations of revenue and borrowing to welfare, the budget should present for consideration of the legislature a definite financial program.The level of government borrowing is an important part of fiscal policy and management of amass demand in any economy. When the government is containning a budget deficit, it means that in a given year, original government expenditure exceeds total tax revenue. As a result, the government has to borrow through the issue of debt such as Treasury Bills and long-term government Bonds. The issue of debt is done by the central bank and involves selling debt to the bond and bill markets. Each general fund spending agencys financial overview presents and outlines revenues and expendi tures for the current budget.The scheme describes the spending agencys mission arguing services provided, staffing summary, objectives, goals, current year budget highlights and performance measurement information. Each of the other funds classified as special revenue funds, enterprise funds, capital project funds, and subjective service funds are detail in the same format as the general fund. Describe restrictions that are (or could be) placed on those revenues. The government can give restrictions on its revenue in order to achieve its goals or objectives.For example the taxation of citizens must be compulsory so as to raise public revenue in order to meet public expenditure relating to maintenance of internal security and external defense of a country and also provision of basic social services at a subsidized cost e. g. education, water, recreational activities, health facilities etc. In most cases, accrual basis of accounting is used to in full so as to depict expenses as p aid not when they take place, diminishing the value of the governments capital assets. This is not accounted for as cash expenses, in the long-term, their value as an asset or liability is recognized.It can be save through measurement focus as a separate account, cognize as revenue in one department, or revealed as an expense in another. For instance, the general funds and purchasing department would work in series in this kind of arrangement so as to manage the amount used up for procurement and adjust budgets for extra expenses, such as purchase of extended warranties and service plans. The restrictions placed from congress, grantors and private groups often restrict these funds for specialized uses.The government may restrict that revenue coming from taxation for example will be used to run free education for university students or be used to carry out research. The general fund holds money in reserve to pay for public utility expenses, or earmarks it with the donors wishes fo r example where the donor wants a certain project to be established by the lending. Capital assets are record as expense when they occur, not as cash income which is not the case with businesses. The nature of organizations divides funds into categories of resource restriction not functional operations. prise how public policy decisions affect the receipt of revenues. For example where the government imposes high rate of tax for its employees or businessmen may make employees to digress practicing tax evasion. This is due to the high amounts they will be required to pay as tax and it will minimize their profits which is their objective as they where venturing into business. Decisions suggested in the previous enacted budgets, and how programs are actually performing influence decisions concerning the future budget of a country.The decision-makers in a country must consider the effects of economic and technical assumptions on the budget estimates so as to avoid over/underestimation. , the rate of inflation, interest rates, the unemployment rate, economic growth and the number of people eligible for various benefit programs, among other things, affect government spending and receipts. For example the government can start some programs in the country so as to help the unemployed to at least(prenominal) to be busy somewhere making something small to sustain them hence affecting the government receipts and spending as it was not budgeted for. slim changes in these assumptions can affect budget estimates by a large amount of money. Through the process of adopting a budget resolution, it concurs on levels for total spending and receipts, the size of the deficit or surplus, and the debt limit. Stages of implementation of the decisions can use feedback to make changes when high cost programs to collect taxes are reactive to public reaction, overruns in cost, long term worth of the policy, manpower and material, employee activity ,time, and the use of consultants, and third party vendors with substantial interest and involvement in policy objectives.Usually implementation is the actual application of a policy and it involves activities such as disbursement of funds, the general mobilization of resources in order to affirm programs and projects. The debt issues as other sources, discounts as other income, while the debt service expenditures express issuance costs. Analyze the economic conditions that affect revenue projections Inflation and the wage increase cost of employee benefits. For example hyperinflation which is the most serious type of inflation also known as runaway or galloping inflation .it has been experienced in Germany, Austria, Hungary, China and other countries of South America. When this type is experienced, the currency in circulation becomes insufferable and in the end new currency is issued. Inflation may be due to increase in demand of goods and services may result in arise in price level. Also when cost of production incr eases the prices goes up it may rise due to the high wage levels, higher cost of raw material or more taxes on the production of commodities. These may affect the revenue projections by the government in place as it may under forecast or overcast the revenue projections.In some cases citizens may not comply with the rules and regulations of a country in that they could like to practice tax evasion. This is a criminal criminal offence involving evasion of tax through fraudulent means e. g. the manipulation of financial statements and failure to make full disclosure of taxable income, or plight in illegal activities e. g. parching, drug trafficking etc where income is generated without paying tax. This affects the revenue projections by the government because at the long run it will end up underestimating the revenue to be expected.Capital expenditures for replacement of equipment and emergence expenditures like floods which require an prompt attention. This usually affects the re venue projections because it was not budgeted for or projected for. This will end up diverting some amount meant for another purpose to be used in that emergence in order to save the situation. Or in other cases where a machine used in the intensifier care unit is not functioning, it will require an immediate attention so as to purchase a new one in order to save the lives of the patients.Diverting from designed performance measures is crucial because annual cash flow statements and budgetary budget flows are necessary to guard the business focused on annual expenses and changes to the same. Realistic interpretations of the best use of income generated through taxes, fees, surcharges and capital funds ties it into most effective and accessible to public use of the money that will benefit all the most. Develop a revenue policy that aligns with community values.A public policy must take into consideration the prevailing customs, traditions and conventions of people. Thus, the policy must not go against established ways of life of the people unless it is extremely desirable to frame one that bans a social evil. Also it must take into account the availability of resources especially financial resources that are critical for its implementation. Such resources may be derived either from national budget or other sources such as donors or loans from commercial banks.Most employees would like to tin without any difficulty to the revenue of the country if their community interests are going to be catered for. The residents would like to have available facilities like a hospital go up home or work, and that of suburbs wishing to enhance tax base, and enjoy the benefits of their contributions. strategic plans and major projects often have the same type of written statement of record. Citizens in general, advocate for a return on investment.Public administrators and urban planners share the approximation that government should support reinvestment in communities in or der for them to prosper. For example if the country comes up with a policy to have a certain community to contribute more to the kitty of revenue so as to build an hospital . The community will contribute positively because it will help them in many ways like travel a short distance to get the services and also employment. This will save many lives were it that they were emergencies and people were to travel long distances to get the services.If there is a plan to initiate a project like an manufacturing in a certain community, the residents will be willing to contribute to that project as they will be assured of the benefits from it. Fines and penalties are also compulsory unreciprocated payments, but are distinct from taxes as they should be punitive in nature and imposed by a discriminative body. This may be imposed on people who go against the morality or the norms of the community. Social Contributions are payments either from employees or employers in turn for Social bene fits in the future, or to insure against risk in the future. willing Social Contributions are excluded from measures of the tax burden e. g. Payments to pension schemes. Conclusion In general, public policy undergoes several stages from problem identification, agenda seytting, policy formulation, policy legitimation, policy implementation and monitoring and evaluation. In the study of public policy there are theories and approaches to its study. They include rationalist/comprehensive approach which emphasizes the idea of maximum social gain from the policy. For a policy to be adopted its benefits must exceed its benefits.If the forecaster overestimates revenues in any one country, the consequences are serious plans must be cut so as to meet the revenue which is received, implying that services will be reduced, or citizens will be taxed more in which case political and administrative costs are acquired. if the forecaster underestimates revenue, however, no such consequences must be c onfronted because the programs will be run within the budget limit. The costs which may be incurred from underestimating revenues are significantly less than the costs which may be incurred from overestimating revenues.Implementing policy may end up with results which were unexpected it may come from a policy whose reach goes beyond the problem it was initially meant to address. REFERENCES Dirk Jan Kraan. Budgetary Decisions, A Public Choice Approach (1996), Dye Thomas, Understanding Public insurance policy, (1984) Henry Nicholas, Public Administration and Public Affairs, (1995) James E. Anderson, Public Policymaking An Introduction. (2006). McLennan B. Comparative Public Policy (1980) Praeger, Public Sector Management, (1990) Sabatier, P. , and Mazmanian, D. Implementation and Public Policy (1989)